Introduction to Physiology.
1.1 Definition of Physiology and its areas of interest; concept of internal and external environment for the cell and for the organism; concept of homeostasis.
1.2 General characteristics of plasma membranes; fluid mosaic model; integral and associated membrane proteins; receptors and transport proteins; difference between carriers and channels.
1.3 The movement of substances through membranes and epithelia; concept of simple or mediated diffusion through membranes; active transport; concept of uniport, symport, and antiport: the examples of Na+/K+ pump and of the Na + -glucose symport; transport by vesicles: exocytosis, endocytosis and transcytosis.
1.4 Distribution of solutes in the different liquid compartments of the organism (schematic drawing); resting membrane potential; equilibrium potentials of Na+ and K+.
2. Neuron physiology and generation of electrical signals.
2.1 Nervous system’s functional anatomy organization: central and peripheral nervous system2.2Structure of the neuron (schematic drawing of its different parts); glial cells; myelin sheath; axonal transport.
2.3 Resting membrane potential of neurons; changes in membrane potential and generation of signals; concept of depolarization and hyperpolarization; the generation of graduated potentials (graph); concept of subthreshold and suprathreshold potential (graph); spatial and temporal summation of graduated potentials; action potential (graph); absolute and relative refractory periods (graph);
2.4 Communication between neurons: chemical synapses (schematic drawing of its different parts) and electrical synapses; mechanisms of release and inactivation of neurotransmitters in chemical synapses; concept of convergence and divergence of the signal; concept of stimulus intensity: how the discharge frequency/pattern of neuron influence the release of the neuro-transmitters.
3. Skeletal Muscle: structure and function.
3.1 The three types of muscle in our body: skeletal, cardiac and smooth; general structure of skeletal muscle fibers: myofibrils, sarcomeres, and membrane systems.
3.2 The excitation-contraction (EC) coupling
mechanism and the transduction of the electrical into a chemical signal; transversal tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum; the voltage sensor (DHPR); the Ca2+-release channel of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (RYR); the triad or calcium release unit (schematic drawing of its different parts); differences between skeletal and cardiac EC coupling.
3.3 The sarcomere (schematic drawing of the organization of filaments, lines, and bands); the main sarcomeric proteins: contractile, regulatory and accessory; role of troponin and tropomyosin in the activation of the contraction; myosin head cycle; tension-length regulation curve of the sarcomere (graph); concept of motor unit and recruitment.
3.4 Classification of muscle fibers based on metabolism and speed of contraction ;classification of fibers in red and white; functional differences between slow, intermediate and fast fibers;
3.5 Contraction mechanics: relationship between electrical and mechanical events; simple twitch (graph), summation mechanism (graph), incomplete and complete tetanus (graphs); definition of fatigue (graph); isometric and isotonic contractions (and role of elastic and contractile components).
4. Smooth muscle: structure and function
4.1 Ultrastructure of smooth muscle
4.2 Activation of smooth muscle contruction: role of phosphorylation and calcium
5. Cardiac muscle: structure and function
5.1 Ultrastructure of cardiomyocite: role of intercalated discs
5.2 The excitation-contraction (EC) coupling: calcium release induced by calcium

6. Physiology of the Cardiovascular System.
6.1 Introduction to the cardiovascular system: anatomy and general functions.
6.2 The heart : pacemaker and contractile tissues; contractile myocardial cells and intercalated disks (schematic drawing); the conduction system (schematic drawing of its various components); the action potential of pacemaker cells (graph); the action potential of contractile cells (graph); the cardiac cycle explained with the 5 phases; the cardiac cycle explained with the pressure-volume curve of the left ventricle (graph); cardiac output (formula); Frank-Starling's law (graph).
6.3 Large and small circulation; arterial pressure and its measurement (concept of systolic and diastolic pressure); mean arterial pressure and factors affecting it; structure contractile components).
7. Physiology of the Respiratory System.
7.1 Introduction to the respiratory system: anatomy and general functions; the reasons for an internalized respiratory system; upper and lower airways; structure of the lung and alveoli; the pleurae and their role in ventilation; inspiratory and expiratory muscles; concepts of lung compliance and elasticity; concept of instability of the alveoli; the four phases of external respiration.
7.2 Ventilation (inhalation and exhalation) and air exchange be; the laws of gases; muscles involved in ventilation at rest and under stress; ventilation mechanics; spirometry and measurement of pulmonary volumes and capacities (graph); concept of pulmonary and alveolar ventilation (formulas); gas exchange between alveoli and blood; hyperventilation and hypoventilation curve (graph).
7.3 Transport of gasses in the blood and gas exchange blood-tissues; transport of O2; hemoglobin/ O2 dissociation curve (graph);
effects of pH (Bohr effect) and temperature on the hemoglobin/ O2 dissociation curve; blood transport of CO2 and its effect on blood pH.
7.4 Reflex control of breathing (schematic drawing of its functioning); respiratory centers of medulla oblongata and pons Varolii; dorsal and ventral respiratory groups; central and peripheral chemoreceptors.