CHEMISTRY
Introduction: States of aggregation of matter. Homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Chemical substances and elements · Atomic structure of matter: atomic theory and laws of Lavoisier, Proust and Dalton. Properties of the atom. Nuclear structure and isotopes. Atomic weights. Chemical symbols and their quantitative meaning · Nomenclature of the main chemical substances: Molecular and ionic chemicals, chemical formulas of simple compounds. · Chemical reactions: Writing and balancing of chemical reactions. · Calculations with chemical formulas and equations: Avogadro's number, concept of mole. Molar mass. Stoichiometry. Structure of the atom: Principles of quantum mechanics. Quantum numbers and atomic orbitals. Electron spin and Pauli exclusion principle. Aufbau principle. Electronic configuration of atoms. Hund's rule. The periodic system of the elements. · The chemical bond: Ionic bond. Covalent bond: generality, octet rule. Lewis formulas. Molecular geometry and dipolar moment. Repulsion theory between pairs of electrons (VSEPR). Chemical reactions and equilibria: Reaction equations and their quantitative significance. Classification of the different types of reactions. Chemical equilibrium. Equilibrium constant. Acid-base theories: Definitions of acids and bases according to Arrhenius, Bronsted. Acid-base balances: Self-ionization of water. Solution of a strong acid or base. The pH of a solution. Ionization equilibria of an acid or a weak base. Polyprotic acids. Hydrolysis. Buffer solutions.

BIOCHEMISTRY:

PART I: Introduction to Biochemistry

Elements of Organic Chemistry:
General Overview of Carbon Compounds. Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Benzene. Overview of Functional Groups: Alcohols, Ethers and Phenols. Aldehydes and Ketones. Amines and Heterocycles.
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions and Chemical Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamics and Work. The First and The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Enthalpy and Entropy Free Energy. Spontaneity and Equilibrium. Thermodynamics and Life.
Enzymes: classification, kinetics, and control

PART II: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BIOMOLECULES

- Carbohydrate: General aspects and classification. Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides.
- Lipids: General aspects and classification. Fatty Acids, Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Sterols and Cholesterol.
- Proteins: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins. Covalent structures and three-dimensional structures of proteins. Protein Folding and Dynamics. Hemoglobin and Mioblobin. Protein Function
Pathological Hemoglobin.
- Nucleic Acids: structure, fuction and general aspects. Nucleotides and Nucleosides

PART III: METABOLISM
Introduction to Metabolism:
- Carbohydrate metabolism I: major metabolic pathways and their control. Glycolysis. Citric Acid Cycle. Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation. Carbohydrate metabolism II: special pathways and glycoconjugates. Glycogen Metabolism, Gluconeogenesis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway.
- Lipid Metabolism: utilization and storage of energy in lipid form. Pathways of metabolism of special lipids: β-oxidation and ketogenesis.
- Protein Metabolism: Amino acid metabolism and Urea cycle.

PHYSIOLOGY

1. Introduction to Physiology (3 hours).
1.1 Definition of Physiology and its areas of interest; concept of internal and external environment for the cell and for the organism; concept of homeostasis.
1.2 General characteristics of plasma membranes; fluid mosaic model; integral and associated membrane proteins; receptors and transport proteins; difference between carriers and channels.
1.3 The movement of substances through membranes and epithelia; concept of simple or mediated diffusion through membranes; active transport; concept of symport and antiport: the examples of Na+/K+ pump and of the Na + -glucose symport.

2. Neuron physiology and generation of electrical signals (4 hours)
2.1 Distribution of solutes in the different liquid compartments of the organism (schematic drawing); resting membrane potential; equilibrium potentials of Na+ and K+.
2.2 Introduction to the nervous system: basic structure of the neuron (schematic drawing of its different parts); glial cells; myelin sheath; axonal transport.
2.3 Resting membrane potential of neurons; changes in membrane potential and generation of signals; concept of depolarization and hyperpolarization; the generation of graduated potentials (graph); concept of subthreshold and suprathreshold potential (graph); spatial and temporal summation of graduated potentials; action potential (graph); absolute and relative refractory periods (graph); saltatory conduction.
2.4 Communication between neurons: chemical synapses (schematic drawing of its different parts) and electrical synapses; mechanisms of release and inactivation of neurotransmitters in chemical synapses; neuromuscular junction (schematic drawing of its different parts).

3. Skeletal and Smooth Muscle: structure and function (5 hours).
3.1 The three types of muscle in our body: skeletal, cardiac and smooth; general structure of skeletal muscle fibers: myofibrils, sarcomeres, and membrane systems.
3.2 The sarcomere (schematic drawing of the organization of filaments, lines, and bands); the main sarcomeric proteins: contractile, regulatory and accessory; role of troponin and tropomyosin in the activation of the contraction; myosin head cycle.
3.3 Classification of muscle fibers based on metabolism and speed of contraction; classification of fibers in red and white; structural and functional differences between slow, intermediate and fast fibers; concept of motor unit and motor unit recruitment; relationship between electrical and mechanical events; simple twitch (graph), summation mechanism (graph), incomplete and complete tetanus (graphs); definition of fatigue (graph).
3.4 General characteristics of smooth muscle cells; organization of thick and thin myofilaments; molecular mechanisms of contraction; molecular mechanisms of contraction: role of calmodulin and phosphorylation of the myosin light chain.

4. Physiology of the Cardiovascular System (5 hours).
4.1 Introduction to the cardiovascular system: anatomy and general functions.
4.2 The heart (schematic drawing): pacemaker and contractile tissues; contractile myocardial cells and intercalated disks (schematic drawing); the conduction system (schematic drawing of its various components); the action potential of pacemaker cells (graph); the action potential of contractile cells (graph); the electrocardiogram (graph); the cardiac cycle explained with the 5 phases; the cardiac cycle explained with the pressure-volume curve of the left ventricle (graph); cardiac output (formula); modulation of heart rate by the autonomic nervous system.
4.3 Large and small circulation; arterial pressure and its measurement (concept of systolic and diastolic pressure); mean arterial pressure and factors affecting it; structure of blood vessels: differences between arteries and veins; the role of arteries and veins in helping the heart to pump blood; regulation of arterial pressure and baroceptor reflex (schematic drawing of its functioning).

5. Physiology of the Respiratory System (4 hours).
5.1 Introduction to the respiratory system: anatomy and general functions; the reasons for an internalized respiratory system; upper and lower airways; structure of the lung and alveoli; the pleurae and their role in ventilation; inspiratory and expiratory muscles; concepts of lung compliance and elasticity; the four phases of external respiration.
5.2 Ventilation (inhalation and exhalation) gas exchange between alveoli and blood; the laws of gases; muscles involved in ventilation at rest and under stress; ventilation mechanics; spirometry and measurement of pulmonary volumes and capacities (graph); concept of pulmonary and alveolar ventilation (formulas); and air exchange between external space and lungs.
5.3 Transport of gasses in the blood and gas exchange blood-tissues; transport of O2; hemoglobin/ O2 dissociation curve (graph); blood transport of CO2 and its effect on blood pH.

6. Physiology of Kidney (3 hours).
6.1 Introduction to the urinary system: urinary tract and kidney; main function of the kidneys; cortex and medulla regions; the nephron: tubular and vascular elements; the structure of the renal corpuscle.
6.2 The nephron: the four basic processes (filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion); concepts of filtration fraction; and filtration pressure; self-regulation of glomerular filtration rate: myogenic response and tubulo-glomerular feedback; reabsorption (example: sodium, glucose, urea).