PHYSIOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION TO PHYSIOLOGY.
1.1 Definition of Physiology and its areas of interest; concept of internal and external environment for the cell and for the organism; concept of homeostasis.
1.2 Relationship structure-function of physiological systems.
2. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE APPARATUS
2.1 The three types of muscle in our body: skeletal, cardiac and smooth; general structure.
2.2 Skeletal Muscle: anatomy. Molecular basis of contraction: general structure of skeletal muscle fibers: myofibrils, sarcomeres, and membrane systems.
2.3 The excitation-contraction (EC) coupling mechanism and the transduction of the electrical into a chemical signal; transversal tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum; the voltage sensor (DHPR); the Ca2+-release channel of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (RYR); the triad or calcium release unit.
2.4 The sarcomere; the main sarcomeric proteins: contractile, regulatory and accessory; role of troponin and tropomyosin in the activation of the contraction; myosin head cycle; tension-length regulation curve of the sarcomere.
2.5 Classification of muscle fibers based on metabolism and speed of contraction; structural and functional differences between slow, intermediate and fast fibers; classification of fibers in red and white; concept of motor unit and motor unit recruitment; relationship between electrical and mechanical events; single twitch, summation mechanism, incomplete and complete tetanus; definition of fatigue; isometric and isotonic contractions (and role of elastic and contractile components). Muscle strength graduation mechanisms. Muscle plasticity.
3. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
3.1 Introduction to the cardiovascular system: anatomy and general functions.
3.2 The heart: pacemaker and contractile tissues; contractile myocardial cells and intercalated disks; the conduction system; the action potential of pacemaker cells; the action potential of contractile cells; the cardiac cycle explained with the 5 phases; the cardiac cycle explained with the pressure-volume curve of the left ventricle; cardiac output; Frank-Starling's law.
3.3 Large and small circulation; arterial pressure and its measurement (concept of systolic and diastolic pressure); mean arterial pressure and factors affecting it; structure of blood vessels: differences between arteries and veins; the role of arteries and veins in helping the heart to pump blood; regulation of arterial pressure and baroceptor reflex.

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
1. CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY
1.1 Distribution of solutes in the different liquid compartments of the organism; ionic bases of membrane potential in resting cells; equilibrium potentials for a single ionic species (Nernst equation). Role of the Na+-K+ pump.
1.2 Relationships between variations in membrane potentials, ion fluxes, membrane permeability; concept of depolarization and hyperpolarization; the generation of graduated potentials; concept of subthreshold and suprathreshold potential; spatial and temporal summation of graduated potentials; mechanisms of propagation of graduated potential and the influence of passive electrical properties of the membrane. Time trend of action potential and main phases related to variations in membrane permeability; meaning of threshold for the action potential; absolute and relative refractory period; propagation of action potentials, differences in myelinated and unmyelinated fibers.
1.3 Transmission of the electrical signal through synapses: electric synapses and chemical synapses and their anatomical and functional differences. Anatomy and functional characteristics of the central and peripheral synapses; neuromuscular junction; excitatory and inhibitory synapses; concepts of stimulus intensity and frequency related to the release of the neurotransmitter.
2. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS): STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
2.1 Introduction to the central nervous system (CNS): anatomo-functional organization of the brain and spinal cord (anatomy recalls); spinal cord structure and its functional organization; structure and function of the brain: brainstem (medulla, pons and midbrain); cerebellum; cerebral cortex; basal ganglia.
2.2 Brain functions: organization of the cerebral cortex in sensory, association and motor areas; concept of lateralization of brain functions.
3. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS): SENSORY DIVISION.
3.1 General properties of sensory systems; types of sensory receptors; generator and receptor potential; primary and secondary receptive field; spatial resolution of stimuli; processing and coding of the intensity, modality, duration and location of the stimulus; concept of lateral inhibition; receptor adaptations.
3.2 Somatic sensitivity: mechanisms and central organization of the somatic system. Anterolateral somesthesic system. Thermal and pain sensitivity. Gate theory in pain modulation. Lemniscal somesthesia sensitivity.
3.3 Ear and hearing: general principles of acoustics; anatomy and functional organization of the auditory system; the meccano-electric transduction of the sound; ionic bases of meccano-transduction in ciliate cells; central auditory pathways; auditory cortex.
3.4 Vestibular system: anatomy and functional organization of the vestibular system; static and dynamic balance; otoliths and semicircular canals; vestibular nerve pathways; vestibulo-ocular reflex; central pathways to thalamus and cortex.
4. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS): MOTOR DIVISION.
4.1 Hierarchical organization of motor control systems; types of movement.
4.2 The spinal cord as a center of reflexes; proprioceptors (joint receptors, neuromuscular spindles, Golgi tendon organs); motor efferences of the spinal cord; concept of myotatic unit and mutual inhibition; spinal reflex arcs; spinal generators of rhythm: the locomotion and biomechanics of the path; muscular stiffness; the cycle of the step; nervous control of locomotion.
4.3 Voluntary movement: nerve centers responsible for movement; relationship between motor neurons and muscles; somatotopic organization of motoneurons; motor program.
4.4 Movement planning and organization: primary motor cortex, posterior parietal cortex and premotor cortex; mirror neurons.
4.5 Modulation of the movement by brain stem and spinal cord: lateral and medial motor descending pathways; posture, balance and visual orientation; final common pathway.
4.6 Modulation of the movement by basal ganglia: anatomy and functional organization of the basal ganglia; afferent and efferent fibers of the basal ganglia; saccadic eye movements; direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglia; dopaminergic pathway.
4.7 Modulation of the movement by the cerebellum: anatomy and functional organization of the cerebellum; afferent and efferent fibers of the cerebellum; basic cerebellar circuits; control of the cerebellum on voluntary movement; role of the cerebellum in motor learning.
4.8 Memory and learning: definitions. Memory: locations, mechanisms, neurobiological bases of short and long-term memory; role of the hippocampus; long term potentiation (LTP). Associative learning and conditional learning. Procedural learning and procedural memory; steps of motor learning, role of the cerebellum in motor learning; striatal circuit and cerebellar circuit.
5. AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS).
5.1 The autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic branch; localization of the cell bodies of autonomic neurons in the spinal cord; differences and similarities between sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways: localization of pre-ganglional neurons and ganglia; neurotransmitters and receptors of the autonomous system; differences between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors; signal transduction mechanisms used by adrenergic and cholinergic receptors; neuro-effector junction; medulla of the adrenal gland and catecholamines.
6. THEORETICAL-PRACTICAL APPROACH TO OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY
6.1 Spinal injuries. ASIA rating scale and its applications.
6.2 Perception of the environment and influence on human behavior. Definition of perception and sensation. Notes on the physiology of the eye. Perception of the environment around us. Optical illusions. Altered perception of reality and applications to rehabilitation.

GENETICS
- Gene structure and function. Protein synthesis, genetic code, regulation of gene expression.
- Cell division. Mitosis, meiosis.
- Cytogenetics. Notes on cytogenetic techniques, normal human karyotype, chromosomal banding.
- Chromosomal abnormalities. Numerical and structural alterations of chromosomes. Main chromosomal syndromes.
- Prenatal diagnosis.
- Mendel's laws. Autosomal dominant and recessive inheritance, heterosomal inheritance, mitochondrial inheritance. Polygenic inheritance. Particularity of the Mendel laws.
- Mutations. Point mutations, frameshift, dynamics. Chemical and physical mutagens.
Chromosomal alterations and spontaneous abortions.
- Principal techniques of molecular biology and their applications. Gene cloning.
- Oncogenes and oncosuppressor genes.

PHARMACOLOGY
Introduction to Pharmacology, definition of active drugs.
Pharmacokinetic elements: main routes of drug administration (outline of the main pharmaceutical forms and the correct administration of drugs); absorption, distribution, biotransformation and excretion of drugs; bioavailability; therapeutic range; plasma half-life; therapeutic index.
Elements of Pharmacodynamics: drug-receptor interactions; main receptor classes; main signal transduction pathways; receptor agonists and antagonists; definition of power and maximum efficacy of a drug.
Special pharmacology:
1) Drugs acting on the central nervous system (anxiolytics, hypnotics and sedatives, antidepressants, drugs for Parkinson's disease, antiepileptics); drugs active on the peripheral nervous system (adrenergic agonists and antagonists, cholinergic agonists and antagonists).
2) Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); glucocorticoids; centrally acting analgesic drugs (morphine).