PHYSIOLOGY
1. Introduction to Physiology.
1.1 Definition of Physiology and its areas of interest; concept of internal and external environment for the cell and for the organism; concept of homeostasis.
1.2 General characteristics of plasma membranes; fluid mosaic model; integral and associated membrane proteins; receptors and transport proteins; difference between carriers and channels.
1.3 The movement of substances through membranes and epithelia; concept of simple or mediated diffusion through membranes; active transport; concept of uniport, symport, and antiport: the examples of Na+/K+ pump and of the Na + -glucose symport; transport by vesicles: exocytosis, endocytosis and transcytosis.

2. Neuron physiology and generation of electrical signals.
2.1 Distribution of solutes in the different liquid compartments of the organism (schematic drawing); resting membrane potential; equilibrium potentials of Na+ and K+.
2.2 Basic structure of the neuron (schematic drawing of its different parts); glial cells; myelin sheath; axonal transport.
2.3 Resting membrane potential of neurons; changes in membrane potential and generation of signals; concept of depolarization and hyperpolarization; the generation of graduated potentials (graph); concept of subthreshold and suprathreshold potential (graph); spatial and temporal summation of graduated potentials; action potential (graph); absolute and relative refractory periods (graph); saltatory conduction.
2.4 Communication between neurons: chemical synapses (schematic drawing of its different parts) and electrical synapses; mechanisms of release and inactivation of neurotransmitters in chemical synapses; concept of convergence and divergence of the signal; concept of stimulus intensity: how the discharge frequency/pattern of neuron influence the release of the neuro-transmitters.

3. Skeletal and Smooth Muscle: structure and function.
5.1 The three types of muscle in our body: skeletal, cardiac and smooth; general structure of skeletal muscle fibers: myofibrils, sarcomeres, and membrane systems.
5.2 The excitation-contraction (EC) coupling
mechanism and the transduction of the electrical into a chemical signal; transversal tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulum; the voltage sensor (DHPR); the Ca2+-release channel of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (RYR); the triad or calcium release unit (schematic drawing of its different parts); differences between skeletal and cardiac EC coupling.
5.3 The sarcomere (schematic drawing of the organization of filaments, lines, and bands); the main sarcomeric proteins: contractile, regulatory and accessory; role of troponin and tropomyosin in the activation of the contraction; myosin head cycle; tension-length regulation curve of the sarcomere (graph).
5.4 Classification of muscle fibers based on metabolism and speed of contraction structural and functional differences between slow, intermediate and fast fibers; classification of fibers in red and white; concept of motor unit and motor unit recruitment;
5.5 Relationship between electrical and mechanical events; simple twitch (graph), summation mechanism (graph), incomplete and complete tetanus (graphs); definition of fatigue (graph); isometric and isotonic contractions (and role of elastic and
contractile components).
5.6 General characteristics of smooth muscle cells; organization of thick and thin myofilaments; molecular mechanisms of contraction; molecular mechanisms of contraction: role of calmodulin and phosphorylation of the myosin light chain.

4. Physiology of the Cardiovascular System.
6.1 Introduction to the cardiovascular system: anatomy and general functions.
6.2 The heart (schematic drawing): pacemaker and contractile tissues; contractile myocardial cells and intercalated disks (schematic drawing); the conduction system (schematic drawing of its various components); the action potential of pacemaker cells (graph); the action potential of contractile cells (graph); the electrocardiogram (graph); the cardiac cycle explained with the 5 phases; the cardiac cycle explained with the pressure-volume curve of the left ventricle (graph); cardiac output (formula); Frank-Starling's law (graph) and the importance of venus return.
6.3 Large and small circulation; arterial pressure and its measurement (concept of systolic and diastolic pressure); mean arterial pressure and factors affecting it; structure contractile components).
5.6 General characteristics of smooth muscle cells; organization of thick and thin myofilaments; molecular mechanisms of contraction; molecular mechanisms of contraction: role of calmodulin and phosphorylation of the myosin light chain.

4. Physiology of the Cardiovascular System.
6.1 Introduction to the cardiovascular system: anatomy and general functions.
6.2 The heart (schematic drawing): pacemaker and contractile tissues; contractile myocardial cells and intercalated disks (schematic drawing); the conduction system (schematic drawing of its various components); the action potential of pacemaker cells (graph); the action potential of contractile cells (graph); the electrocardiogram (graph); the cardiac cycle explained with the 5 phases; the cardiac cycle explained with the pressure-volume curve of the left ventricle (graph); cardiac output (formula); Frank-Starling's law (graph) and the importance of venus return.
6.3 Large and small circulation; arterial pressure and its measurement (concept of systolic and diastolic pressure); mean arterial pressure and factors affecting it; structure blood vessels: differences between arteries and veins; the role of arteries and veins in helping the heart to pump blood; regulation of arterial pressure and baroceptors reflex (schematic drawing of its functioning).

5. Physiology of the Respiratory System.
7.1 Introduction to the respiratory system: anatomy and general functions; the reasons for an internalized respiratory system; upper and lower airways; structure of the lung and alveoli; the pleurae and their role in ventilation; inspiratory and expiratory muscles; concepts of lung compliance and elasticity; concept of instability of the alveoli; the four phases of external respiration.
7.2 Ventilation (inhalation and exhalation) and air exchange between external space and lungs; the laws of gases; muscles involved in ventilation at rest and under stress; ventilation mechanics; spirometry and measurement of pulmonary volumes and capacities (graph); concept of pulmonary and alveolar ventilation (formulas); gas exchange between alveoli and blood; hyperventilation and hypoventilation curve (graph).
7.3 Transport of gasses in the blood and gas exchange blood-tissues; transport of O2; hemoglobin/ O2 dissociation curve (graph);
effects of pH (Bohr effect) and temperature on the hemoglobin/ O2 dissociation curve; blood transport of CO2 and its effect on blood pH.
7.4 Reflex control of breathing (schematic drawing of its functioning); respiratory centers of medulla oblongata and pons Varolii; dorsal and ventral respiratory groups; central and peripheral chemoreceptors.

6. Physiology of Kidney and the Hydro-electrolytic Balance.
8.1 Introduction to the urinary system: urinary tract and kidney; main function of the kidneys; cortex and medulla regions; the nephron: tubular and vascular elements; the structure of the renal corpuscle.
8.2 The nephron: the four basic processes (filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion); concepts of filtration fraction; and filtration pressure; self-regulation of glomerular filtration rate: myogenic response and tubulo-glomerular feedback; reabsorption (ex .: sodium, glucose, urea).
8.3 Hydro-electrolyte balance: water balance and role of the kidney in its regulation;
vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone; countercurrent exchange in the medulla of the kidney.
CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
The program is divided into the following points:
a) acquisition of the basic elements related to the pathophysiology of blood and blood
components. Clinical evaluation of anemias and study of related parameters. Analysis
clinics of leukemias and lymphomas and staging.
b) Pathophysiology of haemostasis. Analysis of the components of the coagulation cascade.
Clinical evaluations of coagulative-deficient states. Deficiency of the factors and their
role in hemorrhagic states.
c) Parameters of immunological investigation.
Diagnostic-clinical evaluation
inflammation and the role of cellular components. Immunophenotyping and his
application in the principals of immunodeficiency and neoplastic induction.
Study of autoimmunity and description of the main autoimmune syndromes: disease
celiac disease, reactive pathologies of the gastro-enteric system (M. of Chron, rectocolitis
ulcerative), Sijogren's syndrome, SLE, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma
d) Tumor serological markers. Analysis of the molecular alterations of the main ones
genes in the pathogenic processes of tumors. Pathogenesis of gastro-enteric tumors.
Predictive Medicine principles and study of prediction markers for the main ones
family oncological syndromes: breast and ovary cancer, HNPCC, tumors
Hereditary thyroid, retinoblastoma, Li-Fraumeni syndrome
e) Principles of pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics. Prediction of the answer
therapeutic in tumors. Presentation of the main application protocols
molecular-diagnostic in the chemotherapeutic orientation
GENERAL PATHOLOGY
Concept of illness and morbid status. Etiologys and pathogenesis. Intrinsic and extrinsic causes of disease. Physical, chemical and viral agents as a cause of illness.
• Inflammation: definition and general characteristics. Acute flogosis: chemical mediators and cells involved; the formation of the exudate; various types of exudate. Phagocytosis. Chronic flogosis.
Thermoregulation. Thermogenesis and heat-dispersion. Non-febrile hyperthermia and hypothermia. Fever: etiopathogenesis of fever; the course of the fever; types of fever; metabolic alterations in fever.
Pathophysiology of the blood. Anaemia: general processes and classification.
Oncology: concepts of hyperplasia, hypertrophy, metaplasia, dysplasia, anaplasia, neoplasia. Benign and malignant tumours. Histogenetic classification of benign and malignant human tumours. Metastasis. The process of carcinogenesis. Concepts of n of neoplasms.
carcinogenicity from chemical, physical and viral agents. Stages of carcinogenesis: initiation, promotion and progression. Oncogenes and oncosuppressors and their role in tumours.

STATISTICS
• Purposes and methods of statistical analysis; Statistical characters and classification.
• Data synthesis Tools: absolute, relative, cumulated frequencies; Arrangement and organization of data in tables; Frequency distributions.
• Main graphical representations: orthograms, circular field diagrams, histograms, frequency polygons, scatter diagrams.
• Central trend indices: Arithmetic mean and its properties, mode and median, Terzili, quartiles and percentiles.
• Variability indices: range, deviance, variance, standard deviation and coefficient of variation. Box-Plot.
• Frequency distribution curves. Symmetry indices.
• Normal distribution, standardized normal distribution.
• Confidence interval for an arithmetic mean and for a proportion.
• Concept of statistical hypothesis testing.
• Relationship between two qualitative characters: the Chi-squared test as a measure of association between two qualitative variables, the chi-squared with the correction of Yates for the continuity, the exact Fisher test.
• Student T-test for independent samples and student T-test for paired samples.
• Relationship between two quantitative characters: regression analysis and correlation analysis
• Critical reading of articles related to topics related to the CdS with significant content of biostatistics